The process through which carbon is exchanged between the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms, crucial for regulating Earth’s climate.

A colorless, odorless gas produced by the respiration of animals and plants and the burning of fossil fuels, playing a key role in the greenhouse effect.

The phase in photosynthesis where carbon dioxide is converted into glucose and other organic compounds using energy from sunlight.

The process by which plants and some bacteria convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds, typically through the Calvin cycle in photosynthesis.

The chain or structure of carbon atoms that forms the backbone of an organic molecule, to which other atoms or groups can be attached.

A polysaccharide that is involved in plant cell wall formation and repair, particularly in response to injury or stress.

A calcium-binding protein that plays a key role in cellular processes by activating enzymes and proteins in response to changes in intracellular calcium levels.

A unit of energy used to measure the energy content of food and the energy expenditure of the body, commonly used in nutrition.

A series of biochemical reactions in plants that use carbon dioxide and energy from ATP and NADPH to synthesize glucose and other sugars.

A cap-like structure in mosses that covers the spore capsule during its early development, eventually falling off as the spores mature.